Disabilities Essay Download Pdf - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 3 Words: 965 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Education Essay Type Review Tags: Disability Essay Did you like this example? Education: Issues and Inequalities A large number of children are being deprived of their right to study. Education is important to be able to build a better nation. However there are some cases wherein children are being banned from going to school because of their disability. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Disabilities Essay Download Pdf" essay for you Create order Issues are arising and they need to be answered. Inequalities, especially in education, are not acceptable. This paper is about the strengths and weaknesses of inclusion and integration policies and support for children with special educational needs. To fully understand the subject it is best to define the issues and concepts involved. A review on research and studies done on education for special children will be presented. In the article written by Anastasia Vlachou (2008) she shows awareness on teachers to change their view regarding inclusion. Integration has been reported that requires change, creates discomfort and involves a considerable challenge to those whose careers, work and social relationships reinforce a segregated system. According to Vlachou (2008), it would be naÃÆ' ¯ve to believe that integration policy will happen as part of a natural evolution in attitudes towards students with special needs. Vlachou (2008) article will be discussed in the literat ure review together with the study done by several researchers. At the end of the paper the personal view of the writer regarding the subject will be presented. The inequalities and issues will be summarized to support the writers claim in the conclusion. Definition of Terms To fully understand what the topic is, it is best to define the important terms used in the paper. Inclusion as defined in the Webster dictionary à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" to put in or consider as part of a group or category. McBrien and Brandt of Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development define inclusion as based on the situation of the disabled child in school. The practice of educating children in one classroom, including children with physical, mental, and developmental disabilities is important. Inclusion classes often require a special assistant to the classroom teacher. The 1975 Education for All Handicapped Children Act (P.L. 94-142) made inclusion a controversial topic by requiring a free and appropriate education with related services for each child in the least restrictive environment possible, and an Individualized Education Program (IEP) for each qualifying child. In 1991, the bill was renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the revision broadened the definition of disabilities and added related services. (Hummel,2008). Another definition of inclusion is defined in the website of teachernet.com. One of the greatest challenges facing schools is the provision of appropriate learning opportunities for all pupils (www.teachernet.com). Within schools there are pupils with a range of abilities from different cultures, religions and social backgrounds. Some of these pupils experience barriers to learning as a result of their disability, heritage, gender, special educational need, ethnicity, social group, sexual orientation, race or culture. Research has proved that children from lower socio-economic backgrounds and/or specific ethnic and social groups are more likely to underachieve at school. This may lead to disaffection, low self-esteem, and marginalisation by others and, in some cases, formal exclusion from school. (www.teachernet.com). Some schools are more successful than others in meeting th e needs of pupils from diverse backgrounds. Mason, H. (2003) of Birminghan, UK presented process of inclusion in education: Increasing the participation of students with disabilities in, and reducing their exclusion from, curricula and communities of local schools; Restructuring the cultures, policies and practices in schools so that they respond to the diversity of students needs; Accepting diversity as normal and as a rich source for all students; Responding to the diverse needs of all students; Accommodating both different styles and rates of learning; Ensuring the quality of education to all students through appropriate curricula, support and teaching strategies; Accepting that inclusion in education is one aspect of inclusion in society. Another important term to define is the word integration. Integration traditionally refers to the education of children with special needs in mainstream settings. (Mason,H. 2003). Organ (1993) defines the term integration that pertains to a social domain; it does and should refer to individuals of different background who opt to interact. Review of Literature The review contains the study done by researchers on inclusion and integration policies in education of children with special needs. The article written by Schwartz, Odom and Sandall (1999), includes their research and found out that most of successful inclusive programs view inclusion as that starting point for all children. Children with disabilities are not expected to earn their way into early childhood programs by having the necessary entry skills (e.g. toilet training, communicating in sentences). ( Schwartz, Odom and Sandall, 1999), Programs may need to make special accommodations to make the inclusive experience successful. Jimmy lacked many of the skills that were typical of his four-year-old classmates; but the classroom teacher, itinerant teacher, and assistant teacher, with the help of the other classmates, arranged activities in ways that encouraged and even required Jimmy to participate. (Schwartz, Odom and Sandall,1999), This view of inclusion is based on th e belief that inclusion can be appropriate for all children; making it work successfully depends on planning, training, and support The Language of Learning: A Guide to Education Terms, by J. L. McBrien and R. S. Brandt, 1997, Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development https://www.teachernet.gov.uk https://www.icevi-europe.org/tt/ttw3/topic5.html Dr Heather Mason, Birmingham, UK Publication Date: Wednesday Aug 13, 1997 The true definition of integration Henry Organ https://www.paloaltoonline.com/weekly/morgue/spectrum/1997_Aug_13.GUEST130.html Including Young Children with Special Needs by Ilene S. Schwartz, Samuel L. Odom, and Susan R. Sandall https://www.newhorizons.org/spneeds/inclusion/information/schwartz3.htm#author School Site https://www.atocbkk.com/school_site.php https://www.ccboe.net/Teachers/Hummel_Heather/onlineresources.html

Alternative Energy Essay - 1313 Words

Every day, many fossil fuel consuming contraptions spew out gases that pollute the environment. However, when the fuel supplies for these devices run out, they will grind to a halt. To prevent this, the United States needs to find an alternative to unstable and polluting energy sources before it’s too late (Rouge). It also needs to advance in technological status in order to stay above advancing third-world countries, and retain its current level of hegemony (Glaser). Space Based Solar Power Satellites, which are satellites that collect the sun’s energy and beam it down to the Earth, solve for all these concerns (Rouge). Thus, the United States Federal Government should provide grants for research, development, and implementation of Space†¦show more content†¦In other words, even though other energy sources could solve the energy crisis, none boast the advantages and flexibility that Space Based Solar Power can provide. For example, Solar Power Satellites are e xtremely useful to the military, as they are capable of beaming energy down to any location on the world, and are able to support military operations all over the world. People may argue that the United States does not have the technology to develop Space Based Solar Power, and that it will never get into space (Mankins). However, the technology required is already available. According to Rouge, â€Å"Space Based Solar Power is a complex engineering challenge, but [it] requires no fundamental scientific breakthroughs or new physics to become a reality (Rouge).† If the United States is to prepare for a future energy crisis, it must act now and begin development on Space Based Solar Power. The United States is currently the most powerful nation in the world due to its economy and technological dominance, but may not stay in that position for much longer if the United States doesn’t substantially increase the money being spent for research and development of new technologies. Every year, more and more countries pour money into research, and they begin to develop technology that rivals that of the United States, which reduces the United States’ technologicalShow MoreRelatedAlternative Energy1688 Words   |  7 PagesAre alternative energy sources the answer to ending human dependence on oil? September 24, 2012 Are alternative energy sources the answer to ending human dependence on oil? Right now there is no one substitute for oil because we use it for a variety of things. We can use alternative sources in areas to preserve or conserve our usage of oil. We use to use wood for fires and light. Then in the industrial revolution we began to use coal. â€Å"Coal can provide much more energy over longer periods thanRead More Hydropower as an Alternative Energy Source Essay841 Words   |  4 PagesHydropower as an Alternative Energy Source Water provides a very valuable resource. We use dams built to run water through turbines and produce electricity. There are many advantages and disadvantages to hydropower, though there are more advantages. It is reasonable inexpensive to maintain, and is a clean source. There are issues with dams blocking fish swimming in the river, but there are ways to help them. Hydropower is well balanced between the electricity needs and the needs of the environmentRead MoreAlternative Energy And Renewable Energy1668 Words   |  7 PagesThroughout the 20th and 21st century, our knowledge about the environment and energy has steadily grown, as well as our dependence on them. Nowadays, power and electricity are in every facet of our daily lives. Due to this, we overlook several negative effects our traditional use of fossil fuels have caused. Fossil fuels are fuel deposits that were formed hundreds of millions of years ago, which is where the term fossil fuels come from. The two most common fos sil fuels currently in use are coal andRead MoreAlternative Energy : Renewable Energy1785 Words   |  8 Pagescurrent energy usage, which is fossil fuels, is not sustainable and carries negative effects to the environment. However nothing is perfect, even renewable energy has its fair share of disadvantages. 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Many people are supportive ofRead MoreAlternative Energy: Solar Energy1323 Words   |  5 PagesIn the world today, alternative energy source which is an alternative to fossil fuel and nuclear energy is becoming more and more of a necessity. Right now, the world’s population growth has caused an increase in the energy demand. Rosenberg (2009) pointed out that the world’s current growth rate is about 1.14%, representing a doubling time of 61 years. OECDs International Energy Agency[IEA] (2014) found that from 2011 to 2035 th e world energy demand is likely to rise by more than two-thirds. ThoughRead MoreAlternative Energy Essay1333 Words   |  6 PagesModern alternative energy generation methods are limited by several factors including efficiency, inability to respond to sudden changes in power demand, and susceptibility to environmental events. In 2010 the leading renewable energy sources were hydro-electric, wind, bioenergy, geothermal, and solar Photo Voltaic (PV)[1]. Of these, hydroelectric made up 82% of the renewable resource energy generation, while the other means all contributed about equally. These relationships can be seen clearly inRead MoreNew And Alternative Sources Of Energy1311 Words   |  6 Pages Today s society uses enormous amounts of energy. *The shadow of our presence on this planet is a result of generations upon generations of production and utilization of energy*. New and alternative sources of energy are being developed to replace the declining accessibility of coal and fossil fuels. Use of renewable energy is a key component in combatting the climate change that has become a major issue in the 21st century. Reducing our impact on the climate as a result of greenhouse gas emissionsRead MoreAlternative Energy : Renewable Energy966 Words   |  4 PagesAlternative Energy. What is it? Alternative energy: energy generated in ways that do not deplete natural resources or harm the environment, avoiding the use of fossil fuels and nuclear power (Google Definition). ALternative energy is the way to go: it is cleaner than Fossil Fuels and Nuclear Power, it works with the environment, and is benefitial to the community. First off, the majority of the world, 80% of the United States uses Nuclear power or Fossil Fuels as a source of energy and electricityRead MoreImplementation Of Geothermal Energy As An Alternative Energy1459 Words   |  6 PagesTitle : Implementation Of Geothermal Energy As An Alternative Energy AHMAD HAFIZUDDIN BIN ISMAIL (EC15132) FIRDAUS BIN MAT SHUKRI (EC15133) MUHAMMAD SUHAIMI BIN MOKHTAH (EC) AMAR FAISSAL BIN KAMARUDDIN (EC15134) Faculty of Electrical and Electronic Engineering UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG (UMP), 26600 PEKAN, PAHANG, MALAYSIA Abstract This report presents an alternative energy is any energy source that from fossil fuel. We need to turn to alternative energy in general. Firstly, we were in danger

Call Center Manager Free Essays

The BCG matrix method is based on the product life cycle theory that can be used to determine what priorities should be given in the product portfolio of a business unit. To ensure long-term value creation, a company should have a portfolio of products that contains both high-growth products in need of cash inputs and low-growth products that generate a lot of cash. It has 2 dimensions: market share and market growth. We will write a custom essay sample on Call Center Manager or any similar topic only for you Order Now The basic idea behind it is that the bigger the market share a product has or the faster the product’s market grows, the better it is for the company. Placing products in the BCG matrix results in 4 categories in a portfolio of a company: †¢ Cash Cow – a business unit that has a large market share in a mature, slow growing industry. Cash cows require little investment and generate cash that can be used to invest in other business units. †¢ Star – a business unit that has a large market share in a fast growing industry. Stars may generate cash, but because the market is growing rapidly they require investment to maintain their lead. If successful, a star will become a cash cow when its industry matures. Question Mark (or Problem Child) – a business unit that has a small market share in a high growth market. These business units require resources to grow market share, but whether they will succeed and become stars is unknown. †¢ Dog – a business unit that has a small market share in a mature industry. A dog may not require substantial cash, but it ties up capital that could better be deployed elsewhere. Unless a dog has some other strategic purpose, it should be liquidated if there is little prospect for it to gain market share. pic] Some limitations of the Boston Consulting Group Matrix include: †¢ High market share is not the only success factor †¢ Market growth is not the only indicator for attractiveness of a market †¢ Sometimes Dogs can earn even more cash as Cash Cows The BCG Matrix method can help understand a frequently made strategy mistake: having a one-size-fits-all-approach to strategy, such as a generic growth target (9 percent per year) or a generic return on capital of say 9. % for an entire corporation. In such a scenario: A. Cash Cows Business Units will beat their profit target easily; their management have an easy job and are often praised anyhow. Even worse, they are often allowed to reinvest substantial cash amounts in their businesses which are mature and not growing anymore. B. Dogs Business Units fight an impossible battle and, even worse, investments are made now and then in hopeless attempts to ‘turn the business around’. C. As a result (all) Question Marks and Stars Business Units get mediocre size investment funds. In this way they are unable to ever become cash cows. These inadequate invested sums of money are a waste of money. Either these SBUs should receive enough investment funds to enable them to achieve a real market dominance and become a cash cow (or star), or otherwise companies are advised to disinvest and try to get whatever possible cash out of the question marks that were not selected. How to cite Call Center Manager, Papers

Decision Making Profitability of the Organization

Question: Discuss about theDecision Making for Profitability of the Organization. Answer: Introduction: As an organization starts expanding, the organizational problems may start intensifying thereby threatening the profitability of the organization. The same is the situation with the Australian organization, Bulla Dairy Foods. Established in the year of 1910, the organization has achieved enormous recognition owing to the production of a variety of dairy products, such as yogurt, ice cream, sour cream, cottage cheese, and imitation cream under various brands. The organization is an example of a family owned business, and it is remarkable to mention here that the company has been able to sustain itself in business over six generations. However, at present there has been a remarkable fall in the total sales and revenue earning capacity of the organization. Hence, the following business report intends to identify and examine the management problem of Bulla Dairy Foods (Bulla Dairy Foods 2016). Management Problem: Any organization that is willing to sustain itself in future must ensure that it is capable of solving the management problems. Bulla Dairy Foods must ensure that the organization is capable of performing the basic management functions (Australia 2014); otherwise there will be a remarkable reduction in the production and efficiency of the organization. It has been observed that Bulla Dairy Foods has been encountering a serious management problem, which if remains uncontrolled, may lead to the downfall and gradual decline of the organization (Marinov 2013). Human capital, apart from financial capital, plays an integral role in contributing to the organizational success of any company. However, in case of Bulla Dairy Foods, it has been observed that the management authority of the organization has been incapable of motivating the employees in an effective manner, as a result of which the organization is encountering a potential challenge in retaining the talented ad skillful workforce. Further, in addition to this, due to lack of employee motivational strategies, the employees are losing enthusiasm to work efficiently. Apart from this, Bulla Dairy Foods does not engage the employees through various programs, workshops and seminars, and as such the employees are unable to bridge the communication gap between the employer and themselves (Devito et al. 2016). Employee development and employee motivation is an area that is highly neglected by the authority of the organization. The major challenge that is impeding the further growth of the or ganization is that being a family-owned business, it has dysfunctional work culture, whereby the ownership of the organization has passed from one generation to the other, without any change in the mission or strategy of the organization. As a result, the owners and the management authority of the organization are unable to adopt the innovative motivational strategies matching the changing demands and the expectations of the employees. The introduction of flexible working hours or lucrative incentive schemes, or the increment in salary and other promotional strategies, can assist the organization in engaging and retaining the employees, while at the same time aligning the organizational strategy with the personal interest of the employees (Lăzăroiu 2015). Research Questions: The research questions that the report intends to examine are as follows: Does the organization offer lucrative salary package and incentive scheme to its employees? Does the management authority of Bulla Dairy Foods keep on periodically re-assessing and revising the salary structure of the employees? How often does the management authority of the organization engage the employees in explaining to them the duties and job roles assigned to them, by arranging seminars and workshops? What is the employee turnover ratio? How many employees are considering the need of leaving the organization and what is the reason behind the same? Research Program: The research is being conducted in order to analyze and evaluate the effectiveness of the motivational strategies present in Bulla Dairy Foods. Hence, the research adopts both the qualitative as well as the quantitative method of approach; while the qualitative method of research employs structured interview and literature review as the means of analyzing the present situation, the quantitative method of research employs the use of questionnaire survey to comprehend the expectations of the employees from the management authority of Bulla Dairy Foods (Silverman 2016). It should be remembered here that the interview is conducted as it helps in investigating the motivational strategies adopted by the employers, and to understand the effectiveness of the same, by considering the perspective of the employees over the matter. On the other hand, the questionnaire survey is useful in gaining a statistical data, as to how many employees is unwilling or even unenthusiastic working in the organ ization (Flick 2015). Data Collection: The data is being collected by employing both qualitative as well as the quantitative research method. Literature review is an essential part of the research process, as it helps in analyzing ad evaluating the present situation in the light of the studies conducted by different researchers over the last decade (Panneerselvam 2014). While reviewing and assessing the scholarly papers and literary articles, Bulla Dairy Foods will be able to explore the relation between employee motivation and increasing rate of employee productivity in an organization. The scholarly papers reviewed, helps in comprehending how different recognized multinational as well as Australian organizations, such as Woolworths, Google or Microsoft motivate their employees and thereby increase employee productivity. However, the structured interview is also being arranged, whereby 5 HR managers and 7 employees of Bulla Dairy Foods, are being interviewed, to understand the employee as well as the employer perspective s over the motivational strategies adopted by the organization (Brinkmann 2014). The questionnaire survey is also being conducted, whereby 30 employees of the organization are being asked to answer questions that are directly related to their personal experience in serving the organization (Gast and Ledford 2014). Data Analysis: The literary journals reviewed clearly showed that there is a direct relation between motivating the employees, and increasing the efficiency level of the employees. From the interview, it is understood that the Bulla Dairy Foods offers a very few lucrative scheme, that hardly fails to attract the attention of the employees. There is hardly any salary hike, and further the employees, who are the family members of the owner, working in the organization, are always being prioritized while granting promotion. Out of the 7 employees interviewed, 5 employees were being recorded stating that the unequal treatment at workplace largely de-motivates them. Besides, 7 of these employees complained that though the salary package offered at the beginning is quite high, the organization does not offer increment benefits or any kind of loyalty bonus to the senior employees. The Human Resource Managers in the interview session stated that the organization provides high salary package at the start, w hich is much higher than any organization in the industry, and hence the organization does not consider the need of revising the salary structure at periodical intervals (Dasseh and Yousef 2016). Again, in the questionnaire survey conducted, it was being observed that 27 of the employees expressed their reluctance in joining their service the organization, owing to the absence of basic motivational factors in the organization, such as recognition and appraisal, sound pension plan, health insurance, disability insurance, or any kind of career development opportunities (Kirmani 2015). Recommendation: The importance of employee motivation cannot be overemphasized. As it has been observed from the interview as well as the survey response, the employees of the organization are unable to focus on their goals for two primary reasons- There is a striking absence of any motivational program that can encourage the employees to accomplish their goals in a given period. The organization does not organize regular meetings and interactive sessions with the employees, and hence the employees are being rendered absolutely directionless regarding the mission and the immediate goals of the organization. It should be noted here that Bulla Dairy Foods has a huge number of competitors in the Australian as well as international market, such as Lion Dairy, and hence the organization must ensure that its employees are motivated enough to help the organization effectively implement its strategies (Porter et al. 2016). It has been observed that the organization does not reward any employee for their outstanding contribution, and hence it is advised that the organization must introduce an appraisal program whereby an employee will be financially rewarded as well as recognized for his extraordinary contribution or innovative idea in the organization. Further, the organization must try to create a valued relation with its consumers, by valuing their contribution towards the success of the organization. Bulla Dairy Foods should introduce training programs that will help the employees enhance and nurture their professional as well as communication skills (Mikkelsen et al. 2014). This will not on ly help in increasing the sincerity, efficiency and productivity of the employees, but will also increase the loyalty of the employees towards the organization. Besides, it has been observed that the management authority of Bulla Dairy Foods, does not organize the workshops and seminars that helps in regular interaction and exchange of information and thoughts between the employer and the employees. It should be remembered that these workshops can help an organization in aligning their strategies and missions, with the professional goals of the employees. The management authority of Bulla Dairy Foods must organize regular staff meetings, at least once in each week, so that the managers can successfully and efficiently communicate the strategies and the goals of the organization. Further, the organization must ensure that with the introduction of each new strategy, goal or change, it announces rewards so as to allure the employees into accomplishing the tasks. It has been observed th at the organization offers high salary at the beginning and does not revise the salary structure and hence it fails to motivate the employees. It is advised here that the organization should hire the employees in lieu of a moderate salary package, and it keeps on revising the salary scheme at regular intervals, so as to keep on encouraging the employees to work harder. Further, it is important for Bulla Dairy Foods to offer long term benefits to the employees, such as the sound pension schemes, or health benefits and disability schemes so that the organization can enjoy long-term commitment from the employees (Klarner et al. 2013). Another major flaw in the management system of the organization is that the higher designations are being offered to the family members of the owners, and not to the deserving employees of the organization. This process of offering promotion must be stopped as it discourages the employees in pursuing their goals necessary for bringing organizational succe ss (Nam 2012). Conclusion: It should be remembered that employee motivation is one of the major factors that determines the success of the organization. It is important for Bulla Dairy Foods to attract and retain its workforce talent and skills, if it wants to sustain itself in a highly competitive market. However, Bulla Dairy Foods has not been able to adopt the effective motivational strategies that can potentially attract and retain the employees, and consequently the employees are gradually losing enthusiasm to work efficiently for the organization. Hence, it is important to keep on recognizing and rewarding the employees for their good work through the introduction of bonus pools, reward recognition and appraisal programs. Reference List: Australia, D., 2014. Australian Dairy Industry.Dairy Australia. Available online: www. dairyaustralia. com. au/Industry-information-About-the-industry. aspx. Brinkmann, S., 2014.Interview(pp. 1008-1010). Springer New York. Bulla Dairy Foods., 2016.Bulla, made with care and shared with love | Bulla Dairy Foods. [online] Bulla.com.au. Available at: https://www.bulla.com.au/ [Accessed 20 Sep. 2016]. Dasseh, M. and Yousef, M., 2016. The Role of Organizational Design in Enhancing Employee Motivation in Saudi Arabia. Devito, L., Brown, A., Bannister, B., Cianci, M. and Mujtaba, B., 2016. Employee Motivation based on the Hierarchy of Needs, Expectancy and the Two-Factor Theories Applied with Higher Education Employees.International Journal of Advances in Management, Economics and Entrepreneurship,3(1), p.20. Flick, U., 2015.Introducing research methodology: A beginner's guide to doing a research project. Sage. Gast, D.L. and Ledford, J.R., 2014.Single case research methodology: Applications in special education and behavioral sciences. Routledge. Kirmani, S.S., 2015.The role of employee motivation in the relationship between personality traits and employee job performance(Doctoral dissertation, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Faculty of Management). Klarner, P., Treffers, T. and Picot, A., 2013. How companies motivate entrepreneurial employees: the case of organizational spin-alongs.Journal of Business Economics,83(4), pp.319-355. Lăzăroiu, G., 2015. Employee Motivation and Job Performance.Linguistic and Philosophical Investigations, (14), pp.97-102. Marinov, A., 2013. Problems in the organization of the system for financial management and control in the State Reserve and War-Time Stocks State Agency.Macedonian Journal of Animal Science,3(1), pp.97-108. Mikkelsen, M.F., Jacobsen, C.B. and Andersen, L.B., 2014. Managing employee motivation: Exploring the connections between managers' enforcement of command systems, employee perceptions, and employee intrinsic motivation.International Public Management Journal. Nam, V.T.P., 2012.Needs satisfaction as a way used to motivate Panneerselvam, R., 2014.Research methodology. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd.. Porter, T.H., Riesenmy, K.D. and Fields, D., 2016. Work environment and employee motivation to lead: Moderating effects of personal characteristics.American Journal of Business,31(2), pp.66-84. Silverman, D. ed., 2016.Qualitative research. Sage.

Unsung Heros Women Who Served In free essay sample

The Armed Forces In Wwii Essay, Research Paper There are many obscure heroes who served in World War Two. For my research, I will research some of the many ways in which brave adult females served in the armed forces. I will look into the undermentioned inquiries: how they were recruited ; what types of obstructions, barriers and/or bias they encountered ; what types of occupations or responsibilities were available to them ; and what type of intervention they received in the armed forces every bit good as in the populace sector. Womans played a major portion in war attempts of World War Two, they were instrumental in maintaining the peace, transporting goods, every bit good as helping the military mans in the field. They served in every theatre of the war and in served many traditional every bit good as untraditional functions. Harmonizing to Grunhitz-Hoyt, adult females who served in traditional functions frequently received better intervention than those who were in untraditional 1s. We will write a custom essay sample on Unsung Heros Women Who Served In or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page ( sixteen ) More than a twelvemonth before the U.S. entered WW II the military realized that it would necessitate big Numberss of adult females to manage clerical, communications and other support maps. The War and Navy Departments hired adult females between June 30, 1940 and 1941. After the bombardment of Pearl Harbor the armed services found they needed adult females under military control, adult females they could delegate where needed. Patriotism was high, adult females were proud to hold the chance to function. They knew that they were responsible for assisting the United States win the war. ( Gruhzit-Hoyt ) During the early old ages of World War Two adult females were recruited to function in many ways American adult females served in the undermentioned subdivisions of service during World War Two: Army # 167 ; Army Nurse Corps # 167 ; Woman Army Corps/Woman s Army Auxiliary Corps # 8211 ; WACS/WAACS Air force # 167 ; Women s Airforce Service Pilots WASPS Navy # 167 ; Navy Nurse Corps # 167 ; Women Appointed For Voluntary Emergency Service # 8211 ; WAVES Marine Corps # 167 ; US Marine Corps Women s Reserve # 8211 ; Marinettes Coast Guard # 167 ; United States Coast Guard Women s Reserve SPARS During World War Two, about 400,000 American military adult females served stateside and abroad. ( Littoff A ; Smith 35-36 ) Recruitment Requirements # 167 ; In order to be considered for hitch in any subdivision of service appliers had to be United States citizens and be between the ages of 21 and 45. For most subdivisions of the service she could hold no dependants, be at least five pess tall, and weigh 100 lbs or more. ( Bellafaire ) # 167 ; Merely registered nurses were eligible for military service. ( Bellafaire ) # 167 ; WASPS recruits had to be at least 21 old ages old and could non hold kids under 14. WASPs were accepted every bit immature as 18 if the adult female had a pilot # 8217 ; s licence and flight experience. She besides had to go through a personal interview and rating. The bulk of the WASPs were white with the exclusion of two Chinese-American adult females who were accepted into the plan. ( Merryman 14-15 ) Womans who served in the armed forces were faced with many obstacles/prejudices and barriers some of these include: # 167 ; Disapproval from parents who did non believe that their girls should enlist, and from people who believed that # 8220 ; nice misss # 8221 ; didn # 8217 ; t serve in the armed forces. ( Gruhzit-Hoyt 4: sixteen, ten ) # 167 ; Even though the military asked for their service, adult females did non happen it easy to subscribe up. Black adult females faced the biggest barriers. Because of racial favoritism, they weren # 8217 ; t even allowed into the station offices to pick up applications for service. ( Moore 2 ) # 167 ; Service chances for African American adult females were really limited due to the fact that many subdivisions of the service refused to acknowledge them. African American adult females had no other pick but to fall in the Army because that was the lone subdivision of the service that would acknowledge them. ( Moore 2 ) # 167 ; As stated by Martha Settle Putney, African American adult females were faced with segregation, bias and barriers in the armed forces that most white adult females who served didn T face. Regardless of her rank she would be segregated from the white military personnels, given inferior lodging and even officers would be barred from entry into white officer s nines. ( Brokaw 185-90 ) # 167 ; Womans were subjected to sexual torment and attempted colzas. ( Meyer 100-121 ) # 167 ; There was a dual criterion in respect to fraternisation between work forces and adult females in the service. For illustration, if a adult female dated or married a military man she would be punished. But the military man would non have any penalty at all. ( Gruhzit-Hoyt 128-134 ) # 167 ; They found that opportunities for transportation and publicity were highly limited, and many adult females served throughout the war at the stations to which they were ab initio assigned. ( Bellafaire ) # 167 ; The imperativeness and media frequently made onslaughts on adult females who served in the armed forces, sometimes picturing them as tribades or scatterbrained females. ( Meyer 113 ) Job Duties and Assignments Harmonizing to Gruhzit-Hoyt, Women had limited picks for functioning in World War II. Womans who served in traditional functions such as nursing and Red Cross places received the best intervention. Womans who worked in extremely specialized occupations such as the Office of Strategic Services where educational degrees were high besides received better intervention. ( 4: sixteen ) Gruhzit-Hoyt studies that they continued to be # 8220 ; file clerks, office workers, cooks, and bakers ; they besides worked as car mechanics, truck drivers, and pilots, wireless operators and cryptographers. # 8221 ; They shortly became competent in these occupations, enabling the work forces to function in combat, which was one of the primary intents of adult females # 8217 ; s enlisting. ( 4: xvi-xvii ) Despite the prohibition against adult females functioning in designated combat zones, the lines of combat and noncombat countries blurred for some of the adult females. WACs following the ground forcess into enemy districts throughout Western Europe and into Germany, found themselves endangered by snipers and enemy bombardments. Red Cross adult females encountered these same menaces. ( 4: nineteen ) Nurses Harmonizing to Gruhzit-Hoyt, merely registered nurses were eligible for military service. The Army Nurse Corps included 5,433 adult females with 823 adult females in the Navy Nurse Corps at the clip of the bombardment of Pearl Harbor. At war # 8217 ; s terminal, 54,291 adult females were in the Army Nurse Corps and 11,086 in the Navy Nurse Corps. A sum of 76,000 adult females served as military nurses during the War. ( 8:12 ) Nurses served in veteran s infirmaries, combat bearers, and overseas. These adult females were responsible for the attention of ill and injured military mans they frequently had really limited field equipment and were forced to do due with the supplies that they had at manus. They worked long hours sometimes up to 18 hours a twenty-four hours during times of crisis. These adult females were frequently at great hazard of danger themselves, during the war 201 Army nurses died in action. Army nurses in Manila worked through the Nipponese bombardments and some became captives of war for the balance of the war. The Germans shot down one Army flight emptying nurse in Europe who became a captive of war. ( Gruhzit-Hoyt 2:4:70 ) WACS/WAACS # 167 ; Initially most WACS/WAACS worked as file clerks, typists, amanuensiss, or motor pool drivers, but bit by bit each service discovered an increasing figure of places WACS/WAACS were capable of make fulling. By January 1945 merely 50 per centum of WAC S held traditional assignments such as file clerk, typist, and stenographer. ( Meyer 74-99 ) # 167 ; Womans were assigned as conditions perceivers and predictors, cryptanalysts, wireless operators and maintenance mans, sheet metal workers, parachute riggers, link trainer teachers, bombsight care specializers, aerial exposure analysts, and command tower operators. ( Gruhit-Hoyt 62-99 ) # 167 ; Harmonizing to Bellafaire: Womans assigned to the Ordnance Department calculated the velocity of slugs, measured bomb fragments, assorted gunpowder, and loaded shells. Others worked as draughtsmans, mechanics, and linemans, and some received preparation in munition technology. Many of the WAACs assigned to the Transportation Corps processed work forces for assignment overseas, managing forces files and publishing arms. WAACs served as boat starters and categorization specializers. WAACs assigned to the Chemical Warfare Service ( ASF ) worked both in research labs and in the field. Some adult females were trained as glass blowers and made trial tubings for the Army # 8217 ; s chemical research labs. Others field tested equipment such as walky-talkies and appraising and weather forecasting instruments. The 250 WAACs assigned to the Quartermaster Corps ( ASF ) kept path of reserves of supplies scattered in terminals across the state. Their responsibilities included review, procurance, stock control, storage, fin ancial inadvertence, and contract expiration. Over 1,200 WAACs assigned to the Signal Corps ( ASF ) worked as telephone patchboard operators, wireless operators, telegraph operators, cryptanalysts, and exposure and map analysts. WAACs assigned as lensmans received preparation in the rules of developing and publishing exposure, mending cameras, blending emulsions, and completing negatives. Womans who became map analysts learned to assemble, saddle horse, and construe mosaic maps. WAACs within the Army Medical Department ( ASF ) were used as research lab, surgical, X-ray, and dental technicians every bit good as medical secretaries and ward clerks, liberating Army nurses for other responsibilities. # 167 ; WAACs assigned to Army Ground Forces frequently felt unwelcome and complained of the intensive subject imposed upon them. ( Bellafaire ) # 167 ; WAACs found that opportunities for transportation and publicity were highly limited, and many adult females served throughout the war at the stations to which they were ab initio assigned. ( Bellafaire ) White anglo-saxon protestant Harmonizing to Gruhzit-Hoyt and Merryman, during the early months of World War II, there was a critical deficit of male pilots. America # 8217 ; s taking adult female pilot, Jacqueline Cochran, convinced the Chief of the Army Air Forces, General Henry Arnold, that she could convey together a corps of adult females pilots. If given the same Army Air Force winging preparation as that given to the AAF male plebes, the adult females would be every bit capable of winging military aircraft and could alleviate male pilots needed for combat responsibility. ( Gruhzit-Hoyt 4: sixteen, nineteen ) . As Merryman illustrates, WASPS were considered civilian voluntaries during their biennial term of responsibility. Merryman quotes former WASP Madge Rutherford Minton: We had no insurance. We got $ 250 a month to wing the most unsafe and heaviest aeroplanes that were deployed by the United State Air Forces. We had to pay our ain board measure ; we bought our ain uniforms. ( Merryman 6 ) , # 167 ; The WASPS were an elect group, merely 1,830 of 25,000 adult females voluntaries who applied were accepted for pilot preparation. WASPS received the same preparation as their male opposite numbers. ( Lisowski ) # 167 ; Missions included ferrying aircraft, towing marks for unrecorded air-to-air gunnery pattern and unrecorded anti-aircraft heavy weapon pattern, simulated strafing and dark tracking missions, flight testing aircraft, fume laying, wireless control winging, transporting lading and forces and functioning as instrument and flight teachers for Army Air Force plebes. ( Grunhzit-Hoyt 150 52 ) ( Merryman 1-13 ) , # 167 ; Conflicting grounds exists about the intervention of the Women Airforce Service Pilots ( WASP ) . Gruhzit-Hoyt studies that the WASP units were treated better than adult females in many other places since adult females pilots had frequently logged more hours than the work forces they worked with. ( 4: sixteen, nineteen ) . Merryman tells a different narrative, she reports that opposition was strong against the WASP and this may hold accounted for some of their deceases. Women pilots who towed marks reported artilleryman trainees shot intentionally at the planes ensuing in the surrenders of some WASPs who feared for their lives. ( 51-61 ) # 167 ; Thirty-eight WASP S lost their lives while functioning their state as military pilots. ( Lisowski ) American Red Cross During World War II, the adult females of the Red Cross played an of import function. The Red Cross helped the wounded with assistance and medical intervention. The Red Cross canteens welcomed American military personnels. The Red Cross would handle and bind up the hurt soldiers. Army nurses and Red Cross infirmary workers set up field and emptying infirmaries. The American Red Cross drove clubmobiles to stray outstations to give out java and doughnuts to the soldiers. Many Red Cross nurses were wounded and killed while salvaging the lives of hurt soldiers, and some were taken as captives. ( Gruhzit-Hoyt 220-248 ) The Disbanding of the Auxiliary Unit of measurements By the terminal war the subsidiary subdivisions of the service were disbanded, adult females who had served in all subdivisions of the service stateside and relieved or replaced work forces for combat responsibility overseas were relieved of their responsibilities. Most with the exclusion of the WAC s were denied full miltiary position and were non eligible for the benefits such as the G.I. Bill to pay for schooling, low involvement lodging loans or VA benefits. They were non considered veterans, merely subsidiary units. ( Meyer 182 ) Harmonizing to Meyers, it would take several old ages after World War II for adult females to procure a lasting topographic point in the state # 8217 ; s Armed Forces. The Armed Forces Integration Act in 1948 led the manner for the adult females of the sixtiess and 70s to spread out their functions in the Army and take up the battle in the other military services. These adult females paved the manner for future coevalss of adult females non merely in the armed forces but in the populace sector as good.

Addressing the Impacts of Undergraduates Engagement in Community Service on Stakeholders

Addressing the Impacts of Undergraduates Engagement in Community Service on Stakeholders Introduction Background Information Community service as a concept has gained popularity throughout the world for various reasons. Perold Rahmat (1997:14) are of the view that this concept is gaining popularity in discourses taking place throughout the world. This is especially the case in community development discussions.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Addressing the Impacts of Undergraduates’ Engagement in Community Service on Stakeholders specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Bryant West (2011) views community service as service or activity that â€Å"..is donated or performed by an individual or a group of individuals to benefit the community† (p. 82). The aim of community service is to benefit members of the public or the various institutions that are found in a contemporary society. It is noted that not every individual who provides community service can be referred to as a volunteer. This is a common misconception among members of the public. It is not everyone who is contributing to the wellbeing of the community is doing so at their own free will. This is given the fact that the individual may be compelled to provide community service by various factors. Such an individual cannot be conceptualised as a volunteer. However, those who provide community service on their own volition with the sole aim of benefiting members of the society and the various social institutions can be regarded as volunteers (Hustinx, 2005: 530). So what are some of the reasons that compel someone to provide community service? According to Jones Hill (2003: 539), there are various reasons why one may feel compelled to provide community service against their will. For example, the government may require some people to provide community service as a policy. This is for example when military officers are required to provide humanitarian assistance to members of the public during war. Another r eason may be an order from the court especially for those criminals who are serving their sentence on probation. A school may also require the students to provide community service before they graduate. These are just some of the various reasons that may compel someone to provide community service against their will.Advertising Looking for research paper on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Jehan (2004: 297) opines that recent developments in the world today have greatly affected community service. For example, globalisation has made the community so complex such that several communities around the world are dependent on each other. This being the case, community service in one community may have impacts on another society in a different part of the world. The issue of interdependence among communities is especially significant given the fact that globalisation has created a situation whereby limited r esources have to be shared by the various communities around the world (Jehan, 2004: 297). As a result of globalisation, it is noted that community service requires the engagement of various stakeholders in the society. This is given the fact that a single sector or a single segment of the society cannot effectively meet the requirements of community service in a given society (Hustinx, 2005: 526). Collaboration between various stakeholders such as businesses, schools and such others is needed to improve the welfare of the community. So what are some of the benefits of community service? According to Vermeulen, Nawir Mayers (2003: 12), both the community and the person providing the service stand to benefit from community service. For example as far as the individual is concerned, community service leads to a sense of pride and satisfaction after helping the needy (Dwayne Palmer, 2006: 399). The individual feels needed and feels that they have contributed to the wellbeing of the s ociety. Community service also fosters a sense of responsibility on the part of the volunteer or the person providing the service (Bednarz et al., 2008: 92). The person feels indebted to the community and feels that they have a duty to perform. It is noted that community service strengthens the community benefiting from the service. For example, a business enterprise providing free medical services to the members of the community improves the overall health of the whole community (Altman, 1995: 529). As the volunteer gets to interact with other members of the community, a sense of tolerance develops between the members of the community and the volunteer. This is especially so in regions such as Africa where ethnic and tribal animosity is rife. A volunteer should ideally provide services to all members of the society without discriminating on the basis of ethnicity or other differences.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Addressing the Impacts of Under graduates’ Engagement in Community Service on Stakeholders specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It is important to note that as much as the community and the individual stands to benefit from community service, there are various challenges facing the provision of this service in a given community (Bebbington Farrington, 1993: 202). The challenges vary through time and space. This means that they vary from one community to the other and from one time or period to the other. Such challenges may include the resistance on the part of the members of the community. The members of the community may resist help from outsiders even when it is obvious that such help is to their own benefit. For example, a country in Africa may decline humanitarian help from a Western nation claiming that such assistance may threaten the sovereignty of the country. Another challenge may be resistance and lack of cooperation on the part of the community service prov iders. A case in point is when students resist providing community service when it is made mandatory by the school management. It is also noted that community service may be threatened by lack of funds which will hamper the ability of the organisation or the individual to provide such services. A case in point is when there is lack of donor funding to support famine relief programs in Africa. Problem Statement As already noted in this paper, community service can be provided by different individuals and organisations from within and without the target community. This may include businesses providing community service as part of their corporate social responsibility program, faith based organisations as part of their outreach program or individuals interested in giving back to the community (Booth, 2006: 13). A university is such an organisation that may find it necessary to provide community service as part of its academic and professional program. The university may require the stu dents to participate in community service before they graduate. This is for example when the department of dentistry requires the trainee dentists to participate in dental camps organised in the community to provide members of the community with free dental services. Other activities in which the students may participate include planting trees, cleaning, caring for the needy among others.Advertising Looking for research paper on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Perold Rahmat (1997) are of the view that universities in Africa have embraced community service as a program and strategy aimed at addressing various problems facing such an institution. For example, the universities may require the students to engage in community service in order to gain practical experience as far as working within the community is concerned (Cooke Kothari, 2001: 13). The universities may also participate in community service as part of the institution’s efforts to give back to the community. According to Perold Rahmat (1997: 15), advocates of community service are of the view that such a program can be used by the university to address various issues facing higher learning. To this end, advocates of such a program are of the view that community service benefits not only the community but also the student and the institution as a whole. The community benefits by having its welfare and wellbeing of its members improved while the student benefits by gaini ng working experience among other benefits. The university on its side is able to establish and sustain working relationship with the members of such a community as a result of the community service (Wilson, 2011: 19). One is able to identify the various stakeholders involved in community service in Africa by analyzing the benefits that community service provided by a university has. The stakeholders in such a case may include the students, the university, the government and the community as alluded to above (Mobley, 2007: 129). Out of all these stakeholders, it is noted that the university students who are participating in community service are perhaps the main beneficiaries of such a program. As already indicated in this paper, the students acquire professional skills as a result of their participation and they may also be earning in the process (Perold Rahmat, 1997: 15). This is for example when the students are financed by various donor agencies to participate in community serv ice. It is noted that youths actively advocate for community service programs in African universities. This is perhaps given the fact that they have come to realise that they are the main beneficiaries of such programs. Authors cite the example of the annual South African Students’ Congress (also referred to as Sasco) held in 1996 which passed a resolution supporting compulsory community work for all students in institutions of higher learning (Perold Rahmat, 1997: 16). According to the resolution passed by the students, community work should be in line with what the student is studying in the university. For example, a Social Work student may be involved in the provision of free social services to street children in the cities. The South African National Youth Commission also advocates for a program targeting university students in the country. The commission is of the view that such a program can be used as a creative strategy to finance higher education in South Africa (H ellebrandt, 2008: 222). The commission proposes that students who cannot meet their higher education expenses can collect credits by providing their services to the community. The discourse above illustrates a university-community development partnership in Africa. This is where the university and the community come together to improve the welfare of the members of the society. This paper is going to address the university-community partnership in Africa. The author is going to specifically address the impacts of undergraduates’ engagement in community service on stakeholders as far as Africa is concerned. The researcher will adopt a literature review methodology which will involve a critical review of literature that found in this field. The aim of such a critical literature review is to organise the knowledge base that is found in this field by identifying the various agreements and disagreements among authors and scholars. The literature review will also identify knowledge gaps in the field and propose areas for future studies. Research Objectives This study will have one main research objective and several specific objectives. The main objective is the overall aim and goal of the study. The main objective will be attained by addressing the various specific objectives. The main and specific objectives are as listed below: Main Objective To address the impacts of undergraduate engagement in community service on stakeholders as far as university-community partnership in Africa is concerned. Specific Objectives Analyse the various stakeholders in university-community partnership in Africa Analyse the various impacts of undergraduates’ engagement in community service on the various stakeholders in Africa Analyse the various strategies adopted by universities in providing community service in Africa Analyse the various benefits of community service provided by universities in Africa Analyse the various challenges affecting the impacts of undergrad uates’ engagement in community service in Africa Analyse the various strategies that can be used to improve the quality of community service provided by universities in Africa Provide recommendations for universities in Africa regarding university-community development partnerships in the continent Research Questions Like research objectives, this study will have a major research question and various specific research questions. It is important to note that the research questions are related to the research objectives. This is given the fact that by answering the research questions, the researcher will have addressed the objectives of the research. Major Research Question What are the various impacts of undergraduates’ engagement in community service on the stakeholders as far as university-community partnership in Africa is concerned? Specific Research Questions Who are the various stakeholders in university-community partnership in Africa? What are the impacts of u ndergraduates’ engagement in community service in Africa? What strategies are used by African universities to provide community service? What are the benefits of community service provided by universities in Africa? What are some of the challenges facing community service provided by universities in Africa? How can universities in Africa improve the quality of community service provided? Which areas of university-community partnerships in Africa can benefit from future research? Thesis Statement Undergraduates’ engagement in community service has various impacts on stakeholders as far as university-community partnership in Africa is concerned Methodology As already indicated in this paper, the author is going to use critical literature review as a research methodology. To this end, the researcher is going to identify the findings of various studies in this field and try to identify the various agreements and disagreements between the various authors. One major advanta ge of critical literature review as a methodology is the fact that the study benefits from the various perspectives of different authors in the field. A major weakness of the methodology is the fact that it generates no new knowledge in the field. All the researcher does in critical literature review is reorganise the knowledge that already exists in a given field. The researcher will identify articles from journals, books and such other academic sources that address the issue of university-community development partnership. Several criteria will be used to select articles that will be included as sources in this study. For example, all the articles must come from academic or professional journals that are peer reviewed or from books. This criterion is aimed at providing credible sources for the study. Another criterion has to do with the fact that all the articles must address the issue of community service in the society. This criterion is aimed at providing this author with artic les that are relevant to the topic of the research. All the articles should also be written in English. However, this criterion does not exclude those articles that were originally written in another language but translated later to English. Scope and Limitations of the Study Overview It is noted that it is not possible to carry out a single study that is capable of addressing all the aspects of a given research topic. This being the case, it is important for the researcher to identify the boundaries within which the study will be conducted. Delineation of such a boundary helps the researcher in focusing the study. The issues that will be covered by the study are separated from those that will not be addressed. This reduces ambiguity and lack of clarity in a given study. This study is not different. It is noted that the study has various limitations that may affect the quality of the findings if not addressed. The limitations can emanate from within and from outside the study. Follo wing is a list of the scope and limitations of the study. The researcher will provide strategies to address the limitations where necessary. Scope and Limitations of the Study The study will be limited to community service provided by universities in Africa. Community service from other agencies such as businesses will not be considered The study will be limited to university-community partnerships in Africa. Such partnerships in other countries outside Africa will not be considered for the study It is also noted that the study will be limited to the participation of undergraduate students in community service. Participation from other stakeholders in the university such as lecturers and the university administration will not be the main focus of this paper The study will use information from other studies conducted in the field before. This means that the study will not generate primary data. To uphold the integrity and quality of the study, the researcher will use stringent measu res in selecting the literature that will be used for the study Significance of the Study At any given time, there are a number of studies which are being conducted in a given field. This being the case, any new research or study that is being conducted in the field has to be justified. The study can be justified on the basis of the value that it is going to add to the field. Following is an outline of the significance of this study in this field: The findings of this study will help African universities in identifying the benefits of community service and the challenges facing such programs. This will help them improve such programs in the future The findings of this study will also help universities in other parts of the world to improve their partnership with the communities by learning from the African experience The findings of the study will help policy makers such as government agencies, community based organisations and such other agencies interested in community developme nt identify the importance of university-community partnerships in Africa. This will help the policy makers come up with policies that will support such partnerships in the future Summary In this section, the author introduced the reader to the various aspects of the study that will be conducted later in the paper. Major aspects of the study were highlighted. The researcher started by providing background information on the topic. This was followed by problem statement, research questions and research objectives, methodology of the study, scope and limitations of the study and finally the significance of the study. The following section will provide information on the theoretical framework that will be used. Theoretical Framework Introduction In this section, the writer will provide information on the theoretical framework that will be used for this study. The researcher will use the participatory theory to critically analyse undergraduates’ engagement in community service i n Africa. It is noted that there are various models or theories of participation that are to be found in this field. Most of these theories are borrowed from political participation literature and adapted for participation in the context of community development. The researcher will highlight some of these theories and provide the main assumptions and arguments of the theories. Theoretical framework is an important aspect in any given research. This is given the fact that the assumptions of the theory guide the researcher in conducting the study. By analyzing the various provisions and assumptions of a theoretical framework in the field, the researcher is able to explain and analyse what they observe when conducting the study. Theories are also important since they are used in organising knowledge in a given field in a coherent manner. This makes it easier to retrieve and access the knowledge stored in such a field. Participation in Community Development: Theoretical Models Overview According to Andrea (2000: 28), participation is a very important aspect of community development. Given the fact that university-community participations are aimed at developing the community, it is noted that community development theories are applicable in such a case. Such a community development theory is the one addressing participation in development activities in such a community. According to Chambers (2007: 23), there are various factors that affect participation of various stakeholders in community development activities. These may include the form of motivation that such individuals are receiving, the socio-psychological orientation of the participants among others (Hartslief, 2005: 12). Community Development Participatory Models As already indicated earlier in this paper, there are several participatory models explaining the level and intensity of participation among stakeholders. These models can be borrowed and adapted from political participatory models found in pol itical science literature. Following are the major participatory models that can be applied in the field of community development specifically university-community partnerships in Africa: The Mobilisation Model of Community Development Participation According to this participation model, it is assumed that stakeholders in community development participate in the activities as a result of the availability of opportunities in their surroundings (D’Exelle Riedl, 2008: 12). As far as political participation is concerned, individuals can only participate in political activities such as elections if they are presented with opportunities to do so. In the context of community development, mobilisation participation model holds that an individual will participate in community development if such an opportunity is made available to that individual (Edmunds Wollenberg, 2002: 244). For example, a student will only participate in community service activities if they are provided with th e opportunity to do so. To this end, universities should ensure that they provide the student with the chance and opportunity to participate in community development through community service. This is perhaps the motivation behind the Congress for South African Students cited earlier when members proposed that community service programs should be mandatory in all institutions of higher learning. By making community service mandatory, the university will effectively provide the student with an opportunity to participate in community development (Perold Rahmat, 1997: 100). Mobilisation model theory also stipulates that individuals participate as a result of stimuli from other persons around them (Colby et al., 2011: 55). As far as political participation is concerned, it is noted that people will participate in politics as a result of persuasion and influence from other people around them. The same can apply to community development participation. Individuals may participate in commu nity service as a result of influence from other people. In other words, students in African universities can participate in community service if they are motivated by other people around them. The university can provide such motivators to the students. Community Development and the Social Psychological Model of Participation According to Hellison (2009: 28), stakeholders such as the youth can resist community service for various reasons. It is also noted that there are various strategies that can be used to resist community service or participation in community development activities. This is for example individual rebellion, collective action such as demonstrations among others. Social psychological model of participation can be used to explain such extreme behaviours. In politics, the model can be used to explain political uprising and mass actions such as the ones experienced in Egypt, Libya and other African countries. This theory provides that individuals are utilitarian actor s who are able to analyse the costs and benefits of various actions (Ugochi, 2007: 27). They can analyse the benefits and costs that are associated with their participation in community service activities and they will act based on this analysis. If the student feels that they will not benefit from community service, they are bound to resist and rebel against efforts made to compel them to participate in such activities (Horm Warford, 2003: 144). It is also noted that the individual is an actor who subscribes to a network of social norms and beliefs (Ferraiolo, 2011: 100). It is this network which provides the individual with internal and external motivations to act in a given manner. It is the reason why a student will support calls to make community service mandatory to all students in higher learning institutions in South Africa given the fact that they are tied to such students’ bodies. Participation in Community Service and The General Incentives Model of Participation According to Gillette (1985: 373), there are people who participate in community development with a lot of intensity than others. This is for example those students who will organise community service activities and lobby their teachers and students to join them. The general incentive model can be used to explain such observations. In the context of politics, the theory can be used to shed light on high- intensity forms of participation in political activities. This is for example running for office, campaigning, canvassing and such other activities. In the context of participation in community development and specifically through community service, it is noted that stakeholders need incentives to participate in such activities (Vermeulen, 2005: 34). However, it is noted that we should consider a wider array of such incentives as opposed to limiting ourselves to individual incentives that motivate the stakeholder (Vermeulen et al., 2003: 12). This model is somehow similar to the mot ivation model given the fact that the stakeholder needs a push to participate in community service. There are various forms of incentives that will motivate a stakeholder to participate in community service (Goulding, 2009: 38). A university should be aware of such incentives to ensure that they are put in place where necessary to encourage students’ participation in community development. Such incentives may include the satisfaction that the stakeholder derives from such participation, the recognition that they get among others (Osvaldo Gustavo, 2011: 29). Addressing Impacts of Undergraduates’ Engagement in Community Service in Africa Overview In this section, the researcher will critically analyse issues surrounding the impacts of undergraduates’ participation or engagement in community service in Africa. Among the issues that will be covered include the impacts of such an engagement on stakeholders, the challenges facing such an engagement and strategies use d by universities in community development among others. Stakeholders in University-Community Partnerships in Africa Before looking at the various benefits of community service by university students, it is important to first identify the various stakeholders that are involved in university-community partnerships in Africa. It is after identifying such stakeholders that we can then look at what each of them stands to gain from undergraduates’ engagement in community service. The following are some of the stakeholders: The Student This is perhaps the most important stakeholder in university-community development partnerships (Timms et al., 2005: 9). It is the students enrolled in various departments in the university who are involved in community service most of the time. For example, Perold Rahmat (1997: 102) cites the case of the South African Students’ Congress which was advocating for mandatory community service for all students in institutions of higher learning i n South Africa. From this analysis, we can conclude that the student has a very important role to play in university-community partnership. The student is the link between the university and the community in this partnership. The University As much as one would like to argue that the undergraduate is the most important stakeholder in university-community partnerships in Africa, it is important to note that the student cannot exist or carry out their duties without the support of the university. It is the university which gives such a student the mandate and the authority to provide community service in the society (Hewson et al., 2010: 12). When the members of the community interact with the student during community service sessions, they see the student as a representative of the particular university that they are coming from. This being the case, it can be argued that the university is an equally important stakeholder in the university-community partnership in Africa. It is the u niversity administration which provides the students with transport, finance and other facilities that are needed in carrying out community service. It is also the university which is tasked with the duty of equipping the student with the skills that are necessary in carrying out community service (Long, 1999: 23). The Community It is noted that the community is the major beneficiary of community service provided by the university through the students (Platteau Gaspart, 2008: 34). The participation of the community is very important in community service. It is important to ensure that the members of the community are involved in the process of identifying their needs and coming up with possible solutions to their problems (Shortall, 2004: 120). According to Chambers (2007: 41), it is important to ensure that community service activities are not imposed on the community by the university and the students or any other agency involved in community service. This is given the fact that when that happens, the community is likely to resist such efforts in effect neutralising the intended benefits. This is despite the fact that the community service endeavours may have been tailored to benefit the community and not the student or the university. Impacts of Students’ Participation in Community Service in Africa on Various Stakeholders As already indicated earlier in this paper, there are several impacts of students’ participation in community service in Africa and elsewhere in the world. It is noted that the impacts may vary from one stakeholder to the other depending on the form of community service that is being offered. One thing that has not being noted is the fact that the participation of students in community service can have both negative and positive impacts on the various stakeholders (Madzivhandila, 2005: 3). The impacts on the various stakeholders will be analysed in detail here: Impacts on Students One of the positive impacts of community s ervice on students is the fact that they gain professional experience from their participation (Ribot, 1999: 34). Take the case of a medical student who is about to graduate. Going to the village and providing medical services gives them an idea of what it is like to work in a real life situation It is also noted that participation in such endeavours leads to a sense of satisfaction on the part of the student. The student feels that they have done something useful for the community and this increases their sense of responsibility (Ribot, 2005: 89) It is noted that participation in community service may have financial benefits for the student. This is for example when the student gets paid to perform extra community service or when they perform community service in exchange for credits to finance their higher education However, it is also important to note that participation in community service may have various negative impacts on the student in Africa. For example, participation ma y take a lot of the student’s time. This is time that could have been used in other activities such as reading for an exam (Arnstein, 1969: 222) At times community service may be irrelevant to the student. This is especially so if the student is involved in community service in an area that is not related to what they are studying in school. This may also happen when the student is compelled to perform community service in order to graduate (Sithole, 2005: 177) Impacts on the University Participation in community service has several impacts on the university as an institution of higher learning in Africa. One of the major positive impacts is the establishment of links between the university and the community within which it is located (Andrea, 2000: 18) However, the participation of undergraduates in community service may be expensive on the part of the university. This is especially so if the type of community service the university is involved in is capital intensive (Tim ms et al., 2005: 2). This is significant given that most of the universities in Africa are underfunded Student participation in community service may also enhance the quality of education that is offered by the university. This is given the fact that the education is not only theoretical but also practical. This being the case, the status of the university as far as potential employers are concerned is enhanced Impacts on the Community The welfare of the community is enhanced when the university engages such a community in a university-community partnership initiative. For example, the health of the members of the community improves when the university provides free or affordable medical services to them (Durham, 2004: 600) Participation of undergraduates in community service may lead to what Platteau Gaspart (2008: 1) refer to as ‘elite capture’. This happens when a few members of the community hijack the services provided by the university and excludes other member s of the society. This will in effect lead to community development that is skewed in favour of a few members of the society or the elite Improving University-Community Partnerships in Africa Having looked at some of the benefits and costs of community service as far as university-community partnership in Africa is concerned, it is now important to look at various strategies that may be used by the various stakeholders to improve the partnership in Africa. We can analyse this by looking at some of the key features of a successful university-community partnership in Africa and elsewhere in the world. The following are some of the features: Using Faculty Work to Improve the Welfare of the Community According to Wilson (2011: 21), higher learning institutions using university-community partnerships to engage the community must start by analyzing the importance of such a partnership in achieving the mission and objective of the university. To this end, it does not benefit the universit y or the community for that matter to engage in community service activities that are seen as ‘dumbing down’ the agenda of the institution (Wilson, 2011: 21). As one step towards improving the quality of community service offered by their faculty members and students in general, the university should review the intended community service activities and how they are related to the objectives and mission of the university. Understanding and Respecting the Community A unique feature of students’ participation in community service is the fact that the activities bring together students and members of the community drawn from different racial and ethnic backgrounds (Vermeulen, 2005: 65). This being the case, there is need for the university and the students to respect and appreciate the unique culture of the community within which they are providing community services. A successful community service program is marked by this respect and understanding. It is noted that more often than not, universities make their way into the community and start imposing programs on that society. This is especially the case when universities from the western nations are involved in a university-community partnership with communities from the African continent. Such a university may enter such an African community with what Wilson (2011: 23) refers to as a â€Å"know-it-all† attitude. Such a university will practically force the community to adopt the policies that are proposed by the so called ‘know- it- all’ partner. Wilson (2011: 22) provides the university wishing to improve the quality of community service with a strategy calculated to gain acceptance from the target community. The author is of the view that the university should first immerse itself fully into the target community before initiating engagement. This will make the community accept the university and thus support the activities of such an institution. Africa may be regarded as a backward and primitive continent by many students who are not aware of the diversity of communities in this continent. Such students may be stereotypical when engaged in community service in African communities. This will compromise the community service activities initiated by universities in this continent. Establish Long-Term and Sustainable Partnerships with the Community Wilson (2011: 24) notes that a successful university-community partnership is not an â€Å"episodic phenomenon†. It is not something that develops overnight. On the contrary, such an engagement is â€Å".programmatic, research-based and more often than not long term† (Wilson, 2011: 24). Most communities in Africa are plagued by challenges and problems that have accumulated over the years as a result of negligence from the rest of the world. This is for example problems brought about by colonisation and exploitation of resources by the western nations (Colby et al., 2011: 56). These are some o f the challenges that are addressed by university-community partnership initiatives in Africa. For example, such an initiative may be addressing rampant poverty in Africa which has been brought about by interplay of factors such as bad governance, exploitation, illiteracy among others. To better address such challenges in Africa, the universities should adopt a long term strategy as opposed to a short term form of intervention (Bednarz et al., 2008: 88). As already noted, the problems did not develop overnight. This being the case, a strategy aimed at addressing these challenges should also be long term just like the challenges themselves (Dwayne Palmer, 2006: 400). As a step towards building long term engagements with the community, it is noted that the university should seek the collaboration of other agencies in community development. These are agencies such as the government, faith based organisations and other non-governmental organisations (Osvaldo Gustavo, 2011: 25). It was mentioned earlier in this paper that recent developments in the word such as globalisation and the rise of technology has changed the community completely. This is especially so for African communities which were under the rule of colonialists for a very long time. This being the case, the challenges that are facing these communities cannot be effectively tackled by one agency alone. This is the reason why the university requires other strategic stakeholders to ensure that the university-community development partnership is sustainable (Booth, 2006: 13). Types of Community Service Programs Initiated by University-Community Partnerships in Africa Community service programs take various forms in Africa. The following are just some of these forms of community service programs: Volunteer Service Programs According to Perold Rahmat (1997), a volunteer is a person who takes community service as a form of extra-curricular activity. The volunteer is involved in community service during ho lidays or when they are not having classes in the case of a university student. In volunteer programs, the student is expected to perform general tasks and not necessarily tasks that are related to their academic field. This means that volunteer programs are not taken as part of class work by the university. The student engaged in volunteer community service is not paid. However, it is noted that the university may fund the activities of the volunteer but this should not be taken as payment on the part of the volunteer student (Bryant West, 2011: 85). Work-Study Programs According to Hustinx (2005: 530), this is a form of program that combines studies and working at the same time. For example, the student may be involved in assisting their lecturers in conducting research, teaching other students among other things. A major aim of work-study program in African universities and other universities around the world is to support the student financially. This is especially so if the ad ministration feels that the student is bright but is needy and cannot afford the tuition fees. This is one way of giving back to the community on the part of the university. Placements A well known form of placement program is internship. Internship has become part of the curriculum in many universities in Africa and in the world in general. However, it is important to note that placement is not strictly structured to give back to the community on the part of the university (Perold Rahmat, 1997: 100). On the contrary, the major aim of placement is to provide the student with a link between theory and practice in learning. However, a critical analysis of the program will reveal that it has some aspects of community service in it. This is especially so when the student is attached to community based organisations such as NGOs which are providing free social services to the public. Conclusion This study critically looked at the impacts of undergraduate students’ engagement in c ommunity service in Africa. The researcher started by defining what community service is and what it entails. Some of the benefits and costs of community service to various stakeholders were analysed. The various forms of community service were also analysed as well as the various strategies that can be used by the universities in Africa to improve their community service programs. Recommendations for Future Research Future studies should make an effort to analyse how universities can improve their development partnerships with the communities. This is given the fact that there is very little data in this field touching on this topic Future studies should also try to analyse the impacts of other students apart from undergraduates as far as their engagement in community service in Africa is concerned. This is as a result of the realisation that other groups of students such as post-graduates are also involved in community service References Altman, D. G. (1995). Sustaining interventi ons in community systems: On the relationship between researchers and communities. Health Psychology, 14(6): 526-536. Andrea, C. (2000). Making a difference: Gender and participatory development. IDS, 2000: 5-30. Arnstein, S. R. (1969). A ladder of citizen participation. Journal of American Institute of Planners, 23: 216-224. Bebbington, A., Farrington, J. (1993). 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Accounting for the Substance of Transactions Essay

Accounting for the Substance of Transactions - Essay Example Though giving an account of the economic summary of the activities of the organization is a straightforward job, generally, an effort is made to give better perception of the organization to be presentable to the Shareholders and other stakeholders by inflating the earnings or assets or deflating the liabilities or losses or manipulation of depreciation methods, stock valuation and accounting development expenditure. Here, two factors influence the presentation. The legal provisions and accounting provisions. The presentation which is correct in legal angle may not be founded on sound accounting principles and may vary from the underlying economic reality. The managements, may, therefore, sometimes choose the best and most advantageous of these two options to present the economic substance of the transactions according to their wishes. Certain artificial transactions/combination of transactions undertaken by the organization are such that it is very difficult to assess the net effect the entire exercise. The assessment of net effect of such various activities of the enterprise may be captioned as â€Å"substance† of a transaction. "substance" of a transaction. Assessment of the substance of the transactions is found necessary to provide reliable, fair and accurate information about corporate performance and to ascertain the actual state of affairs of the business organization. The need is felt very seriously as the various distortions in Financial statements are on the increase, among other things, defining the nature of assets and liabilities and inclusion or non-inclusion of such assets and liabilities in Books of Accounts. Such events not only distort the substance of the economic activity of the organization but also fail to project the actual problems faced by the organization, depriving the organization to initiate remedial steps to address the real problems. Accounting reforms comprising provisions for reporting of substance of transactions are therefore, found necessary. Statement of principles of Accounting prescribe the activities that should be reported on in financial statements, the various dimensions of those activities that should be prominently furnished, the features that information should have if it is to be mentioned in the financial statements. The main role of the Statement of principles is to provide conceptual input into the ASB's work on the development and review of accounting standards. The Statement is not, therefore, neither an accounting standard nor does it contain any requirements on how financial statements are to be prepared. The prominent among the principles for reporting the Substance of the Transactions is definition of assets and liabilities, accounting for subsidiary undertakings, and the activities to be excluded from the business organization's financial statements and those to be included, thus setting standards for presentation of Financial statements. Factors like legal requirements, cost-benefit considerations, i ndustry-specific issues, and the desirability of evolutionary change and implementation issues are also covered. Reporting the Substance of Transactions' implies the addition of Application Note G 'Revenue Recognition'. This clears the ambiguity regarding the treatment of revenue and, in particular, the treatment of turnover (as a subset of revenue). This Application Note deals with revenue recognition from the supply of goods or services by a seller to its customers. It sets out basic principles of revenue recognition which should be applied in all cases. It also provides specific guidance for